Physicochemical Analysis, Caffeine Quantification, and Sensory Profiling of Oenanthe javanica Tea
Keywords:
Oenanthe javanica, herbal infusion, ATR-FTIR, caffeine, physicochemical analysis, sensory evaluation
Abstract
Herbal tea infusions have gained increasing attention due to their potential health-promoting and therapeutic properties. Oenanthe javanica has been recognised for its antioxidant and detoxifying attributes; however, its sensory and physicochemical characteristics remain insufficiently explored. This study aimed to determine caffeine concentrations across different formulations, evaluate key physicochemical properties, and assess consumer sensory acceptance. Leaf samples were analysed through moisture content determination, controlled brewing conditions (water volume, temperature, and storage), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), spectrophotometric caffeine quantification, and sensory evaluation involving 30 panellists. Physicochemical analysis showed that dried O. javanica leaves exhibited slightly higher moisture content than Camellia sinensis (black tea). FTIR analysis confirmed the presence of key functional groups, including C–H, C=O, C=C, and C–N bonds, which contribute to its chemical profile. Caffeine quantification confirmed its presence in O. javanica, while black tea consistently exhibited the highest caffeine content, and the 1:1 blended formulation showed the lowest concentration due to dilution effects. The calibration model based on the Beer–Lambert law demonstrated strong linearity for caffeine quantification. In addition, brewing conditions and storage significantly influenced the physicochemical properties of the infusions, where lower solvent volumes produced more concentrated, acidic, and caffeine-rich extracts. Sensory evaluation revealed that pure O. javanica tea received lower overall hedonic acceptance compared with black tea, while the blended formulation showed improved acceptability. Overall, the findings provide new insights into the physicochemical and sensory characteristics of O. javanica, supporting its potential application as a functional ingredient in herbal tea product development.
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References
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[37] Vuong, Q. V., Golding, J. B., Nguyen, M., & Roach, P. D. (2010). Extraction and isolation of catechins from tea. Journal of Separation Science, 33(21), 3415–3428.
[38] Vuong, Q. V., Golding, J. B., Stathopoulos, C. E., Nguyen, M. H., & Roach, P. D. (2011). Optimizing conditions for the extraction of catechins from green tea using hot water. Journal of Separation Science, 34(21), 3099–3106.
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[40] Ananingsih, V. K., Sharma, A., & Zhou, W. (2013). Green tea catechins during food processing and storage: A review on stability and detection. Food Research International, 50(2), 469–479.
[41] Lv, H., Feng, X., Song, H., Ma, S., Hao, Z., Hu, H., Yang, Y., Pan, Y., Zhou, S., Fan, F., Gong, S., Chu, Q., & Chen, P. (2023). Tea storage: A not thoroughly recognized and precisely designed process. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 140, 104172.
[42] Lawless, H. T., & Heymann, H. (2010). Sensory evaluation of food: Principles and practices (2nd ed.). Springer.
[43] Drewnowski, A., & Gomez-Carneros, C. (2000). Bitter taste, phytonutrients, and the consumer: A review. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(6), 1424–1435.
[2] Saad, A. M., Mohammed, D. M., Alkafaas, S. S., Ghosh, S., Negm, S. H., Salem, H. M., Fahmy, M. A., Semary, H. E., Ibrahim, E. H., AbuQamar, S. F., El-Tarabily, K. A., & El-Saadony, M. T. (2025). Dietary polyphenols and human health: sources, biological activities, nutritional and immunological aspects, and bioavailability – a comprehensive review. Frontiers in Immunology, 16, 1653378.
[3] Chahrour, J. A., Abdel Baki, Z., El Badan, D., Nasser, G., Maresca, M., & Hijazi, A. (2025). Herbal medicines in the management of diabetes mellitus: Plants, bioactive compounds, and mechanisms of action. Biomolecules, 15(12), 1674.
[4] Studzińska-Sroka, E., Galanty, A., Gościniak, A., Wieczorek, M., Kłaput, M., Dudek-Makuch, M., & Cielecka-Piontek, J. (2021). Herbal infusions as a valuable functional food. Nutrients, 13(11), 4051.
[5] Devi, R. S., Satapathy, K. B., Manjula, B. L., Sharma, B. P., & Kumar, S. (2024). Evaluation of ethnopharmacological potential of Oenanthe javanica DC. Annals of Biology, 40(1), 135-139.
[6] Lu, C. L., & Li, X. F. (2019). A review of Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. as traditional medicinal plant and its therapeutic potential. Evidence‐Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2019(1), 6495819.
[7] Bae, U. J., Jang, H. N., Lee, S. H., Kim, J. Y., & Kim, G. C. (2022). Oenanthe javanica ethanolic extract alleviates inflammation and modifies gut microbiota in mice with DSS-induced colitis. Antioxidants, 11(12), 2429.
[8] Vinothini, K., Karga, T., Rabita, N., Dikshit, D., & Venkatesan, A. (2024). Phytochemical studies and antioxidant activity of crude extract of Oenanthe javanica blume DC. Journal of Xidian University, 18(7), 534-547.
[9] Kim, Y. S., Jung, C. H., Kim, S. Y., Chai, H., & Kim, H. (2026). The effects of Java water-dropwort (Oenanthe javanica) extract on alcohol metabolism and hangover symptoms: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover clinical trial. Foods, 15(6), 1003.
[10] Chan, E. W. C., Wong, S. K., & Chan, H. T. (2017). Ulam herbs of Oenanthe javanica and Cosmos caudatus: An overview on their medicinal properties. J. Nat. Remedies, 16, 137-147.
[11] Alalwan, T. A. (2025). Consumer psychology in functional beverages: From nutritional awareness to habit formation. Beverages, 11(5), 126.
[12] Sheikh, M. S., Thavle, G., & Derkar, G. (2026). A comprehensive review on caffeine-free energy herbal drinks. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 4(2), 526-536.
[13] Čižmárová, B., Kraus Jr, V., & Birková, A. (2025). Caffeinated beverages—Unveiling their impact on human health. Beverages, 11(1), 18.
[14] Hamdan, M., Zidan, S., Al-Amouri, F., Niroukh, H., Dawod, M. A., Ashour, S., Dweik, S. A., & Badrasawi, M. (2025). Factors associated with caffeine intake among undergraduates: a cross-sectional study from Palestine. Journal of Health, Population and Nutrition, 44(1), 26.
[15] Reddy, V. S., Shiva, S., Manikantan, S., & Ramakrishna, S. (2024). Pharmacology of caffeine and its effects on the human body. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry Reports, 10, 100138.
[16] Wan, Z., Wang, W., Liu, X., Li, P., & Zhang, W. (2025). The influence of storage conditions on the quality of vacuum-packed water caltrop shell. Foods, 14(20), 3567.
[17] Atlaw, T., Befa Kinki, A., Belay, D., Meiso, B., Haile, T., & Wei, C. R. (2024). Formulation and characterization of herbal tea from hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) and lemon verbena (Aloysia citrodora). CyTA-Journal of Food, 22(1), 2351913.
[18] Kabilan, S. J., Baskar, R., & Poorani, G. (2019). Herbal tea formulation for health rejenuvation: Nutritional, physicochemical and sensory analysis. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced Technology, 9(1S4), 783-788.
[19] Yang, S., Pathak, S., Tang, H., Zhang, D., Chen, Y., Ntezimana, B., Ni, D., & Yu, Z. (2024). Non-targeted metabolomics reveals the effects of different rolling methods on black tea quality. Foods, 13(2), 325.
[20] Aaqil, M., Peng, C., Kamal, A., Nawaz, T., Zhang, F., & Gong, J. (2023). Tea harvesting and processing techniques and its effect on phytochemical profile and final quality of black tea: A review. Foods, 12(24), 4467.
[21] Kumar, S., Li, G., Yang, J., Huang, X., Ji, Q., Liu, Z., Ke, W., & Hou, H. (2021). Effect of salt stress on growth, physiological parameters, and ionic concentration of water dropwort (Oenanthe javanica) cultivars. Frontiers in Plant Science, 12, 660409.
[22] Zhu, S. H., Zhong, X. L., Yan, J., Xiong, A. S., Qiu, Q., Luo, Q., Cheng, C. Y., & Tan, G. F. (2026). Influence of cultivation under shading conditions on lignin biosynthesis and characteristics of Oenanthe javanica and Oenanthe linearis Plants. Horticulturae, 12(4), 477.
[23] Zhang, S., Qi, Y., Tan, S. P. H., Bi, R., & Olivo, M. (2023). Molecular fingerprint detection using Raman and infrared spectroscopy technologies for cancer detection: a progress review. Biosensors, 13(5), 557.
[24] Hong, T., Yin, J. Y., Nie, S. P., & Xie, M. Y. (2021). Applications of infrared spectroscopy in polysaccharide structural analysis: Progress, challenge and perspective. Food Chemistry: X, 12, 100168.
[25] Esteki, M., Memarbashi, N., & Simal-Gandara, J. (2022). Classification and authentication of tea according to their geographical origin based on FT-IR fingerprinting using pattern recognition methods. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 106, 104321.
[26] Thummajitsakul, S., Samaikam, S., Tacha, S., & Silprasit, K. (2020). Study on FTIR spectroscopy, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity and anti-amylase activity of extracts and different tea forms of Garcinia schomburgkiana leaves. LWT, 134, 110005
[27] Hızır-Kadı, I., Demircan, E., & Özçelik, B. (2025). Interaction of hazelnut-derived polyphenols with biodegradable film matrix: Structural, barrier, and functional properties. Foods, 15(1), 107.
[28] Yazid, E. A., Wafi, A., & Wulandari, A. E. (2021). Spectrophotometric methods for the determination of caffeine in beverages use solvent extraction techniques and adsorption of activated carbon. Journal of Tropical Pharmacy and Chemistry, 5(4), 338-346.
[29] Lu, C. L., & Li, X. F. (2019). A review of Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. as traditional medicinal plant and its therapeutic potential. Evidence‐Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2019(1), 6495819.
[30] Monagas, M., Brendler, T., Brinckmann, J., Dentali, S., Gafner, S., Giancaspro, G., Johnson, H., Kababick, J., Ma, C., Oketch-Rabah, H., Pais, P., Sarma, N., & Marles, R. (2022). Understanding plant to extract ratios in botanical extracts. Frontiers in Pharmacology, 13, 981978.
[31] Shalmashi, A., & Golmohammad, F. (2010). Solubility of caffeine in water, ethyl acetate, ethanol, carbon tetrachloride, methanol, chloroform, dichloromethane, and acetone between 298 and 323 K. Latin American applied research, 40(3), 283-285.
[32] Pishro, K. A., Silva, L. S., Lamarca, R. S., Amaral, C. D., & Gonzalez, M. H. (2025). Exploring caffeine extraction using hydrophobic deep eutectic solvents: Experimental and theoretical approaches. ACS Omega, 10(38), 44218-44233.
[33] Li, H., Guo, H., Luo, Q., Wu, D.-T., Zou, L., Liu, Y., Li, H.-B., & Gan, R.-Y. (2023). Current extraction, purification, and identification techniques of tea polyphenols: An updated review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63(19), 3912–3930.
[34] Banerjee, S., & Chatterjee, J. (2015). Efficient extraction strategies of tea (Camellia sinensis) biomolecules. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52(6), 3158–3168.
[35] Raghunath, S., Budaraju, S., Gharibzahedi, S. M. T., Koubaa, M., Roohinejad, S., & Mallikarjunan, K. (2023). Processing technologies for the extraction of value-added bioactive compounds from tea. Food Engineering Reviews, 15(2), 276–308.
[36] Gramza-Michałowska, A. (2014). Caffeine in tea Camellia sinensis - Content, absorption, benefits and risks of consumption. Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging, 18(2), 143–149.
[37] Vuong, Q. V., Golding, J. B., Nguyen, M., & Roach, P. D. (2010). Extraction and isolation of catechins from tea. Journal of Separation Science, 33(21), 3415–3428.
[38] Vuong, Q. V., Golding, J. B., Stathopoulos, C. E., Nguyen, M. H., & Roach, P. D. (2011). Optimizing conditions for the extraction of catechins from green tea using hot water. Journal of Separation Science, 34(21), 3099–3106.
[39] Sun, B., Wang, W., He, Z., Zhang, M., Kong, F., Sain, M., & Ni, Y. (2018). Improvement of stability of tea polyphenols: A review. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 24(29), 3410–3423.
[40] Ananingsih, V. K., Sharma, A., & Zhou, W. (2013). Green tea catechins during food processing and storage: A review on stability and detection. Food Research International, 50(2), 469–479.
[41] Lv, H., Feng, X., Song, H., Ma, S., Hao, Z., Hu, H., Yang, Y., Pan, Y., Zhou, S., Fan, F., Gong, S., Chu, Q., & Chen, P. (2023). Tea storage: A not thoroughly recognized and precisely designed process. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 140, 104172.
[42] Lawless, H. T., & Heymann, H. (2010). Sensory evaluation of food: Principles and practices (2nd ed.). Springer.
[43] Drewnowski, A., & Gomez-Carneros, C. (2000). Bitter taste, phytonutrients, and the consumer: A review. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(6), 1424–1435.
Published
2026-08-29
Section
Articles
Copyright (c) 2026 Emi Norzehan Mohamad Mahbob, Nurul Afiqah Ahmad Shahril, Nabila Amani Ahmad Naseri, Nur Izzah Nazlah Aznan, Nurliyana Atiqah Hamidi, Nurul Izzati Hamirrudin, Izzati Najihah Ahmad Razy
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
